The Internet Essays (1001 words) - Digital Technology,

The Internet The Internet is the name for a group of worldwide information resources. These resources are so vast as to be well beyond the comprehension of a single human being. Not only is there no one who understands all of the Internet, there is no one who even understands most of the Internet (Harley 2). The Internet is often thought of as a computer network, or sometimes a group of computer networks connected to one another. The computer networks are simply the medium that carries the information. The beauty and utility of the Internet lie in the information itself that is being transmitted. The Internet has undergone a remarkable transformation since its early days. The original Internet was a low-speed, text-based network used to connect a few government sites to the research and defense contracting community. The Department of Defense began a project known as ARPAnet (Advanced Research Project Agency Network) back in the late 1960's, starting the first internet. It was designed by the network architects to interconnect government computers with defense contractors (Banta 2). The design of the network was such that no one computer system was dependent upon the functioning of any of the other computer systems. If any one computer network node was destroyed, such as in a nuclear attack, the rest of the network would continue to operate (Banta 2). In the 1970s, the Internet began to be interconnected with large universities and research organizations (Banta 2). The type of information going across the Internet began to change from that of being primarily government oriented to that of research oriented. During the 1980s, more universities and government contractors began using the internet contributing to its growth. As the amount of network traffic increased, the speed of the Internet began to slow down. In the mid - 1980s, the U.S. Department of Defense split the network into the ARPAnet and the MilNet. The MilNet consists of only traffic to and from military sites and other government locations vital for national defense. The National Science Foundation (NSF) took over ARPAnet and merged it into a high-speed network called NSFnet (Benta 2). The NSFnet was the prototype for the national Internet backbones that we have today. It provided high-speed links among scientists and supercomputing facilities and served as the main Internet traffic arteries for the United States. People at universities and elsewhere immediately began using the increased speed for everything other than supercomputing, and this led to the birth of the national Internet infrastructure. In 1995, the NSF handed over control of the Internet backbone to commercial carriers (Glen 3). In the last couple of years Internet usage has shifted from the university environment to that of becoming more commercial. The primary thing that has led to this shift was the development of the World Wide Web (the Web) by CERN (the high-energy physics research institute in Geneva, Switzerland). Coupled with this came the development of the first practical web browser, Mosaic, from the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA) (Glen 3). Today, the Internet is being used by all sorts People - educators, librarians, hobbyists, and business people - for a variety of purposes, from communicating with each other, to accessing valuable information and resources. To appreciate what the. Internet has to offer, imagine discovering a whole system of highways and high-speed connectors that cut hours off your commuting time. Or a library you could use any time of the day or night, with acres of books and resources and unlimited browsing. That's the Internet. Web browsers allowed people to explore the resources of the Internet in a way that was far easier than the original text-based applications like FTP (file transfer protocol, Gopher (a search engine), Telnet (remotely accessing a computer), etc. As more people become interested in the Internet, the more web browsers were developed and came into use. The main web browsers in use today are Netscape and Microsoft's Internet Explorer. Web browsers were developed that were more graphically (picture) oriented and easier to use than the old text based applications. This led to an increase in the number of people that began connecting themselves to the Internet and this led to a slow down in

The 1780s Crisis and the Causes of the French Revolution

The 1780s Crisis and the Causes of the French Revolution The French Revolution resulted from two state crises which emerged during the 1750s–80s, one constitutional and one financial, with the latter providing a tipping point in 1788/89 when desperate action by government ministers backfired and unleashed a revolution against the Ancien Regime. In addition to these, there was the growth of the bourgeoisie, a social order whose new wealth, power, and opinions undermined the older feudal social system of France. The bourgeoisie were, in general, highly critical of the pre-revolutionary regime and acted to change it, although the exact role they played is still hotly debated among historians. Maupeou, the Parlements, and Constitutional Doubts From the 1750s, it became increasingly clear to many Frenchmen that the constitution of France, based on an absolutist style of monarchy, was no longer working. This was partly due to failures in government, be they the squabbling instability of the kings ministers or embarrassing defeats in wars, somewhat a result of new enlightenment thinking, which increasingly undermined despotic monarchs, and partly due to the bourgeoisie seeking a voice in the administration. The ideas of public opinion, nation, and citizen emerged and grew, along with a sense that the states authority had to be defined and legitimized in a new, broader framework which took more notice of the people instead of simply reflecting the monarchs whims. People increasingly mentioned the Estates General, a three-chambered assembly which hadnt met since the seventeenth century, as a possible solution that would allow the people- or more of them, at least- to work with the monarch. There wasnt much demand to replace the monarch, as would happen in the revolution, but a desire to bring monarch and people into a closer orbit which gave the latter more say. The idea of a government- and king- operating with a series of constitutional checks and balances had grown to be vitally important in France, and it was the existing 13 parlements which were considered- or at least considered themselves- the vital check on the king. However, in 1771, the parlement of Paris refused to cooperate with the nations Chancellor Maupeou, and he responded by exiling the parlement, remodeling the system, abolishing the connected venal offices and creating a replacement disposed towards his wishes. The provincial parlements responded angrily and met with the same fate. A country which had wanted more checks on the king suddenly found that those they had were disappearing. The political situation seemed to be going backwards. Despite a campaign designed to win over the public, Maupeou never gained national support for his changes and they were canceled three years later when the new king, Louis XVI, responded to angry complaints by reversing all the changes. Unfortunately, the damage had been done: the parlements had been clearly shown as weak and subject to the kings wishes, not the invulnerable moderating element they wished to be. But what, thinkers in France asked, would act as a check on the king? The Estates General was a favorite answer. But the Estates General hadnt met for a long time, and the details were only sketchily remembered. The Financial Crisis and the Assembly of Notables The financial crisis which left the door open for revolution began during the American War of Independence, when France spent over a billion livres, the equivalent of the states entire income for a year. Almost all the money had been obtained from loans, and the modern world has seen what overstretched loans can do to an economy. The problems were initially managed by Jacques Necker, a French Protestant banker and the only non-noble in the government. His cunning publicity and accounting- his public balance sheet, the Compte rendu au roi, made the accounts look healthy- masked the scale of the problem from the French public, but by the chancellorship of Calonne, the state was looking for new ways to tax and meet their loan payments. Calonne came up with a package of changes which, had they been accepted, would have been the most sweeping reforms in the French crowns history. They included abolishing lots of taxes and replacing them with a land tax to be paid by everyone, including th e previously exempt nobles. He wanted a show of national consensus for his reforms and, rejecting the Estates General as too unpredictable, called a hand-picked Assembly of Notables which first met at Versailles on February 22nd, 1787. Less than ten were not noble and no similar assembly had been called since 1626. It was not a legitimate check on the king but meant to be a rubber stamp. Calonne had seriously miscalculated and, far from weakly accepting the proposed changes, the 144 members of the Assembly refused to sanction them. Many were against paying new tax, many had reasons to dislike Calonne, and many genuinely believed the reason they gave for refusing: no new tax should be imposed without the king first consulting the nation and, as they were unelected, they couldnt speak for the nation. Discussions proved fruitless and, eventually, Calonne was replaced with Brienne, who tried again before dismissing the Assembly in May. Brienne then tried to pass his own version of Calonnes changes through the parlement of Paris, but they refused, again citing the Estates General as the only body which could accept new taxes. Brienne exiled them to Troyes before working on a compromise, proposing that the Estates General would meet in 1797; he even began a consultation to work out how it should be formed and run. But for all the goodwill earned, more was lost as the king and his government began forcing laws through using the arbitrary practice of lit de justice. The king is even recorded as responding to complaints by saying its legal because I wish it (Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution, 2002, p. 80), further fueling worries over the constitution. The growing financial crises reached its climax in 1788 as the disrupted state machinery, caught between changes of the system, couldnt bring in the required sums, a situation exacerbated as bad weather ruined the harvest. The treasury was empty and no-one was willing to accept more loans or changes. Brienne tried to create support by bringing the date of the Estates General forward to 1789, but it didnt work and the treasury had to suspend all payments. France was bankrupt. One of Briennes last actions before resigning was persuading King Louis XVI to recall Necker, whose return was greeted with jubilation by the general public. He recalled the Paris parlement and made it clear he was just tiding the nation over until the Estates General meet. Bottom Line The short version of this story is that financial troubles caused a populace who, awakened by the Enlightenment to demand more say in government, refused to solve those financial issues until they had a say. No one realized the extent of what would happen next.